Do I Need to Call Pediatrician Before Baby Is Born

Co-operative of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents

This article is about the co-operative of medicine. For the journal, see Pediatrics (journal). For the co-operative of dentistry, come across Pedodontics.

Pediatrics

A pediatrician examines a newborn.
Focus	Children, adolescents, and Immature adults
Subdivisions	Paediatric cardiology, neonatology, critical care, pediatric oncology, infirmary medicine, chief care, others (meet below)
Pregnant diseases	Built diseases, Infectious diseases, Childhood cancer, Mental disorders
Significant tests	World Health Arrangement Child Growth Standards
Specialist	Pediatrician
Glossary	Glossary of medicine

Paediatrics (as well spelled pediatrics or pædiatrics) is the branch of medicine that involves the medical intendance of infants, children, and adolescents. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends people seek pediatric care through the age of 21.^{[1] [2]} In the U.k., paediatrics covers patients until historic period xviii.^[3] Worldwide historic period limits of pediatrics have been trending up year over year.^[4] A medical doctor who specializes in this area is known every bit a pediatrician, or paediatrician. The word pediatrics and its cognates mean "healer of children"; they derive from two Greek words: παῖς (pais "child") and ἰατρός (iatros "md, healer"). Pediatricians piece of work in hospitals and children's hospitals especially those working in its subspecialties (e.g. neonatology), and as outpatient main care physicians.

History [edit]

The primeval mentions of child-specific medical problems appears in the Hippocratic Corpus, published in the fifth century B.C., and the famous Sacred Illness. These publications discussed topics such as childhood epilepsy and premature births. From the starting time to fourth centuries A.D., Greek philosophers and physicians Celsus, Soranus of Ephesus, Aretaeus, Galen, and Oribasius, also discussed specific illnesses affecting children in their works, such every bit rashes, epilepsy, and meningitis.^[five] Already Hippocrates, Aristotle, Celsus, Soranus, and Galen^[6] understood the differences in growing and maturing organisms that necessitated different treatment: Ex toto non sic pueri ut viri curari debent ("In general, boys should not be treated in the same way equally men").^[7]

Even though some pediatric works existed during this time, they were deficient and rarely published due to a lack of knowledge in pediatric medicine. It was in 1472, in Padua, that Paolo Bagellardo, an Italian doctor, authored the first medical book entirely about babyhood illnesses - "De infantium aegritudinibus ac remediis."^[5] Some of the oldest traces of pediatrics can be discovered in Aboriginal India where children'south doctors were called kumara bhrtya.^[six] Sushruta Samhita an ayurvedic text, composed during the sixth century BC contains the text about pediatrics.^[eight] Some other ayurvedic text from this period is Kashyapa Samhita.^{[ix] [x]}

A 2d century Advert manuscript by the Greek doctor and gynecologist Soranus of Ephesus dealt with neonatal pediatrics.^[eleven] Byzantine physicians Oribasius, Aëtius of Amida, Alexander Trallianus, and Paulus Aegineta contributed to the field.^[6] The Byzantines also built brephotrophia (crêches).^[6] Islamic Golden Historic period writers served every bit a bridge for Greco-Roman and Byzantine medicine and added ideas of their own, especially Haly Abbas, Yahya Serapion, Abulcasis, Avicenna, and Averroes. The Persian philosopher and dr. al-Razi (865–925) published a monograph on pediatrics titled Diseases in Children besides as the first definite clarification of smallpox every bit a clinical entity.^{[12] [13]} Also among the first books near pediatrics was Libellus [Opusculum] de aegritudinibus et remediis infantium 1472 ("Little Book on Children Diseases and Treatment"), by the Italian pediatrician Paolo Bagellardo.^[xiv] In sequence came Bartholomäus Metlinger's Ein Regiment der Jungerkinder 1473, Cornelius Roelans (1450–1525) no title Buchlein, or Latin compendium, 1483, and Heinrich von Louffenburg (1391–1460) Versehung des Leibs written in 1429 (published 1491), together form the Pediatric Incunabula, four great medical treatises on children's physiology and pathology.^[6]

While more information about childhood diseases became available, at that place was little evidence that children received the aforementioned kind of medical care that adults did.^[15] It was during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that medical experts started offering specialized care for children.^[v] The Swedish doctor Nils Rosén von Rosenstein (1706–1773) is considered to exist the founder of modern pediatrics every bit a medical specialty,^{[sixteen] [17]} while his piece of work The diseases of children, and their remedies (1764) is considered to be "the first modern textbook on the bailiwick".^[18] However, information technology was not until the nineteenth century that medical professionals best-selling pediatrics every bit a separate field of medicine. The first pediatric-specific publications appeared between the 1790s and the 1920s.^[19] The term pediatrics was first introduced in English in 1859 by Dr. Abraham Jacobi. In 1860, he became "the first defended professor of pediatrics in the world."^[twenty] Pediatrics as a specialized field of medicine continued to develop in the mid-19th century; High german dr. Abraham Jacobi (1830–1919) is known as the father of American pediatrics because of his many contributions to the field.^{[21] [22]} He received his medical training in Germany and later on skilful in New York City.

The offset more often than not accepted pediatric hospital is the Hôpital des Enfants Malades (French: Infirmary for Sick Children), which opened in Paris in June 1802 on the site of a previous orphanage.^[23] From its outset, this famous hospital accepted patients up to the age of fifteen years,^[24] and it continues to this day as the pediatric division of the Necker-Enfants Malades Infirmary, created in 1920 past merging with the physically contiguous Necker Hospital, founded in 1778.

In other European countries, the Charité (a hospital founded in 1710) in Berlin established a split Pediatric Pavilion in 1830, followed by like institutions at Petrograd in 1834, and at Vienna and Breslau (now Wrocław), both in 1837. In 1852 U.k.'s beginning pediatric hospital, the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street was founded past Charles West.^[23] The first Children'south infirmary in Scotland opened in 1860 in Edinburgh.^[25] In the US, the first like institutions were the Children'southward Hospital of Philadelphia, which opened in 1855, and then Boston Children'south Hospital (1869).^[26] Subspecialties in pediatrics were created at the Harriet Lane Home at Johns Hopkins by Edwards A. Park.^[27]

Differences between adult and pediatric medicine [edit]

The body size differences are paralleled by maturation changes. The smaller body of an baby or neonate is substantially different physiologically from that of an developed. Congenital defects, genetic variance, and developmental issues are of greater concern to pediatricians than they oftentimes are to adult physicians. A common adage is that children are not but "little adults".^[28] The clinician must accept into business relationship the young physiology of the infant or kid when considering symptoms, prescribing medications, and diagnosing illnesses.

Pediatric physiology directly impacts the pharmacokinetic properties of drugs that enter the torso. The absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination of medications differ between developing children and grown adults.^{[28] [29] [30]} Despite completed studies and reviews, continual research is needed to ameliorate empathize how these factors should bear on the decisions of healthcare providers when prescribing and administering medications to the pediatric population.^[28]

Assimilation [edit]

Many drug absorption differences between pediatric and adult populations revolve around the breadbasket. Neonates and young infants have increased tum pH due to decreased acid secretion, thereby creating a more basic environment for drugs that are taken past mouth.^{[29] [28] [thirty]} Acid is essential to degrading certain oral drugs earlier systemic absorption. Therefore, the absorption of these drugs in children is greater than in adults due to decreased breakup and increased preservation in a less acidic gastric space.^[29]

Children besides have an extended rate of gastric emptying, which slows the rate of drug absorption.^{[29] [thirty]}

Drug absorption also depends on specific enzymes that come in contact with the oral drug as it travels through the torso. Supply of these enzymes increase as children proceed to develop their gastrointestinal tract.^{[29] [30]} Pediatric patients take underdeveloped proteins, which leads to decreased metabolism and increased serum concentrations of specific drugs. However, prodrugs feel the opposite event because enzymes are necessary for allowing their active class to enter systemic circulation.^[29]

Distribution [edit]

Percentage of total torso h2o and extracellular fluid volume both decrease equally children grow and develop with fourth dimension. Pediatric patients thus have a larger book of distribution than adults, which directly affects the dosing of hydrophilic drugs such as beta-lactam antibiotics like ampicillin.^[29] Thus, these drugs are administered at greater weight-based doses or with adjusted dosing intervals in children to account for this central difference in body limerick.^{[29] [28]}

Infants and neonates also have fewer plasma proteins. Thus, highly poly peptide-bound drugs have fewer opportunities for protein binding, leading to increased distribution.^[28]

Metabolism [edit]

Drug metabolism primarily occurs via enzymes in the liver and can vary according to which specific enzymes are affected in a specific stage of evolution.^[29] Phase I and Phase 2 enzymes accept different rates of maturation and development, depending on their specific mechanism of action (i.e. oxidation, hydrolysis, acetylation, methylation, etc.). Enzyme chapters, clearance, and half-life are all factors that contribute to metabolism differences between children and adults.^{[29] [30]} Drug metabolism can even differ inside the pediatric population, separating neonates and infants from immature children.^[28]

Elimination [edit]

Drug elimination is primarily facilitated via the liver and kidneys.^[29] In infants and young children, the larger relative size of their kidneys leads to increased renal clearance of medications that are eliminated through urine.^[thirty] In preterm neonates and infants, their kidneys are slower to mature and thus are unable to clear as much drug every bit fully developed kidneys. This tin can crusade unwanted drug build-up, which is why information technology is important to consider lower doses and greater dosing intervals for this population.^{[28] [29]} Diseases that negatively affect kidney part can also have the same effect and thus warrant like considerations.^[29]

Pediatric autonomy in healthcare [edit]

A major difference between the exercise of pediatric and developed medicine is that children, in most jurisdictions and with certain exceptions, cannot make decisions for themselves. The issues of guardianship, privacy, legal responsibility, and informed consent must always be considered in every pediatric process. Pediatricians oftentimes take to treat the parents and sometimes, the family, rather than just the child. Adolescents are in their own legal class, having rights to their own health care decisions in certain circumstances. The concept of legal consent combined with the non-legal consent (assent) of the child when because handling options, peculiarly in the confront of conditions with poor prognosis or complicated and painful procedures/surgeries, means the pediatrician must take into account the desires of many people, in addition to those of the patient.

History of Pediatric Autonomy [edit]

The term autonomy is traceable to ethical theory and police force, where information technology states that autonomous individuals tin can make decisions based on their own logic.^[31] Hippocrates was the beginning to use the term in a medical setting. He created a code of ethics for doctors called the Hippocratic Oath that highlighted the importance of putting patients' interests first, making autonomy for patients a superlative priority in health care.^[32]

In ancient times, society did non view pediatric medicine as essential or scientific.^[33] Experts considered professional medicine unsuitable for treating children. Children also had no rights. Fathers regarded their children as property, so their children's health decisions were entrusted to them.^[5] Every bit a result, mothers, midwives, "wise women," and general practitioners treated the children instead of doctors.^[33] Since mothers could not rely on professional medicine to accept intendance of their children, they adult their own methods, such as using alkaline metal soda ash to remove the vernix at nascence and treating teething pain with opium or wine. The absenteeism of proper pediatric care, rights, and laws in health care to prioritize children's health led to many of their deaths. Ancient Greeks and Romans sometimes even killed healthy female person babies and infants with deformities since they had no adequate medical treatment and no laws prohibiting infanticide.^[five]

In the twentieth century, medical experts began to put more emphasis on children'southward rights. In 1989, in the United nations Rights of the Child Convention, medical experts developed the Best Interest Standard of Child to prioritize children's rights and best interests. This upshot marked the onset of pediatric autonomy. In 1995, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) finally acknowledged the Best Interest Standard of a Child as an ethical principle for pediatric controlling, and it is nonetheless existence used today.^[32]

[edit]

The majority of the time, parents take the authority to decide what happens to their kid. Philosopher John Locke argued that information technology is the responsibleness of parents to enhance their children and that God gave them this authorization. In modern society, Jeffrey Blustein, modern philosopher and writer of the volume Parents and Children: The Ethics of Family, argues that parental authority is granted considering the child requires parents to satisfy their needs. He believes that parental autonomy is more about parents providing good intendance for their children and treating them with respect than parents having rights.^[34] The researcher Kyriakos Martakis, MD, MSc, explains that research shows parental influence negatively affects children's power to form autonomy. Still, involving children in the decision-making process allows children to develop their cognitive skills and create their own opinions and, thus, decisions about their health. Parental potency affects the degree of autonomy the child patient has. As a consequence, in Argentine republic, the new National Ceremonious and Commercial Code has enacted various changes to the healthcare system to encourage children and adolescents to develop autonomy. It has become more crucial to let children have accountability for their own health decisions.^[35]

In most cases, the pediatrician, parent, and child work as a team to make the best possible medical conclusion. The pediatrician has the right to intervene for the child'south welfare and seek communication from an ethics committee. However, in recent studies, authors have denied that consummate autonomy is present in pediatric healthcare. The same moral standards should utilise to children as they do to adults. In back up of this idea is the concept of paternalism, which negates autonomy when it is in the patient's interests. This concept aims to keep the kid's best interests in mind regarding autonomy. Pediatricians can interact with patients and help them make decisions that volition do good them, thus enhancing their autonomy. However, radical theories that question a child's moral worth go along to be debated today.^[35] Authors often question whether the treatment and equality of a child and an adult should exist the aforementioned. Author Tamar Schapiro notes that children demand nurturing and cannot exercise the same level of authority every bit adults.^[36] Hence, standing the discussion on whether children are capable of making important health decisions until this day.

Mod Advancements [edit]

According to the Subcommittee of Clinical Ethics of the Argentinean Pediatric Order (SAP), children can understand moral feelings at all ages and can make reasonable decisions based on those feelings. Therefore, children and teens are deemed capable of making their own wellness decisions when they accomplish the age of 13. Recently, studies made on the controlling of children have challenged that historic period to exist 12.^[35]

Technology has made several modern advancements that contribute to the future evolution of child autonomy, for example, unsolicited findings (U.F.s) of pediatric exome sequencing. They are findings based on pediatric exome sequencing that explain in greater detail the intellectual disability of a child and predict to what extent it will affect the child in the future. Genetic and intellectual disorders in children make them incapable of making moral decisions, then people look down upon this kind of testing considering the child'south time to come autonomy is at risk. It is nonetheless in question whether parents should request these types of testing for their children. Medical experts argue that it could endanger the democratic rights the child volition possess in the future. All the same, the parents contend that genetic testing would benefit the welfare of their children since it would allow them to make improve health care decisions.^[37] Exome sequencing for children and the decision to grant parents the right to request them is a medically ethical event that many yet debate today.

Education requirements [edit]

Aspiring medical students will need 4 years of undergraduate courses at a college or academy, which will get them a BS, BA or other bachelor's degree. Afterward completing higher, future pediatricians will demand to attend 4 years of medical school (MD/DO/MBBS) and later do 3 more years of residency grooming, the beginning year of which is chosen "internship." Later completing the 3 years of residency, physicians are eligible to become certified in pediatrics by passing a rigorous test that deals with medical conditions related to immature children.

In high schoolhouse, future pediatricians are required to have basic science classes such as biological science, chemistry, physics, algebra, geometry, and calculus. It is also appropriate to learn a strange language (preferably Castilian in the United states) and be involved in high school organizations and extracurricular activities. After high school, college students just need to fulfill the basic scientific discipline grade requirements that most medical schools recommend and will demand to prepare to accept the MCAT (Medical College Admission Examination) in their junior or early on senior yr in college. In one case attending medical schoolhouse, pupil courses will focus on basic medical sciences like man anatomy, physiology, chemistry, etc., for the offset three years, the second year of which is when medical students start to get easily-on feel with actual patients.^[38]

Training of pediatricians [edit]

Pediatrics

Occupation
Names	Pediatrician Paediatrician
Occupation blazon	Specialty
Activeness sectors	Medicine
Clarification
Education required	Physician of Medicine Physician of Osteopathic Medicine Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS/MBChB)
Fields of employment	Hospitals, Clinics

The grooming of pediatricians varies considerably across the world. Depending on jurisdiction and university, a medical degree grade may exist either undergraduate-entry or graduate-entry. The former commonly takes five or 6 years and has been usual in the Republic. Entrants to graduate-entry courses (as in the U.s.), ordinarily lasting iv or five years, have previously completed a iii- or four-year university degree, normally only by no ways always in sciences. Medical graduates hold a caste specific to the country and university in and from which they graduated. This degree qualifies that medical practitioner to become licensed or registered under the laws of that detail state, and sometimes of several countries, subject to requirements for "internship" or "conditional registration".

Pediatricians must undertake further preparation in their chosen field. This may accept from four to eleven or more years depending on jurisdiction and the degree of specialization.

In the U.s., a medical school graduate wishing to specialize in pediatrics must undergo a three-year residency equanimous of outpatient, inpatient, and critical intendance rotations. Subspecialties within pediatrics require further training in the form of three-year fellowships. Subspecialties include critical care, gastroenterology, neurology, infectious disease, hematology/oncology, rheumatology, pulmonology, child abuse, emergency medicine, endocrinology, neonatology, and others.^[39]

In most jurisdictions, entry-level degrees are common to all branches of the medical profession, just in some jurisdictions, specialization in pediatrics may brainstorm before completion of this degree. In some jurisdictions, pediatric grooming is begun immediately following the completion of entry-level training. In other jurisdictions, junior medical doctors must undertake generalist (unstreamed) training for a number of years earlier commencing pediatric (or whatsoever other) specialization. Specialist training is often largely under the control of 'pediatric organizations (come across below) rather than universities and depends on the jurisdiction.

Subspecialties [edit]

Subspecialties of pediatrics include:

(not an exhaustive listing)

• Habit medicine (multidisciplinary)
• Adolescent medicine
• Child abuse pediatrics
• Clinical information science
• Developmental-behavioral pediatrics
• Genetics and Metabolism
• Headache medicine
• Hospital medicine
• Medical toxicology
• Neonatology/Perinatology
• Pain medicine (multidisciplinary)
• Palliative care (multidisciplinary)
• Pediatric allergy and immunology
• Pediatric cardiology
  • Pediatric cardiac critical care
• Pediatric critical care
  • Neurocritical intendance
  • Pediatric cardiac critical care
• Pediatric emergency medicine
• Pediatric endocrinology
• Pediatric gastroenterology
  • Transplant hepatology
• Pediatric hematology
• Pediatric infectious illness
• Pediatric nephrology
• Pediatric oncology
  • Pediatric neuro-oncology
• Pediatric pulmonology
• Master care
• Pediatric rheumatology
• Slumber medicine (multidisciplinary)
• Social pediatrics
• Sports medicine

Other specialties that treat children [edit]

(non an exhaustive list)

• Kid neurology
  • Addiction medicine (multidisciplinary)
  • Encephalon injury medicine
  • Clinical neurophysiology
  • Epilepsy
  • Headache medicine
  • Neurocritical care
  • Neuroimmunology
  • Neuromuscular medicine
  • Neuropsychiatry
  • Hurting medicine (multidisciplinary)
  • Palliative care (multidisciplinary)
  • Pediatric neuro-oncology
  • Sleep medicine (multidisciplinary)
• Child and adolescent psychiatry, subspecialty of psychiatry
• Neurodevelopmental disabilities
• Pediatric anesthesiology, subspecialty of anesthesiology
• Pediatric dentistry, subspecialty of dentistry
• Pediatric dermatology, subspecialty of dermatology
• Pediatric gynecology
• Pediatric neurosurgery, subspecialty of neurosurgery
• Pediatric ophthalmology, subspecialty of ophthalmology
• Pediatric orthopedic surgery, subspecialty of orthopedic surgery
• Pediatric otolaryngology, subspecialty of otolaryngology
• Pediatric plastic surgery, subspecialty of plastic surgery
• Pediatric radiology, subspecialty of radiology
• Pediatric rehabilitation medicine, subspecialty of physical medicine and rehabilitation
• Pediatric surgery, subspecialty of general surgery
• Pediatric urology, subspecialty of urology

See too [edit]

• American Academy of Pediatrics
• American Osteopathic Board of Pediatrics
• Eye on Media and Kid Health (CMCH)
• Children's hospital
• Listing of pediatric organizations
• List of pediatrics journals
• Medical specialty
• Pediatric Oncall
• Pain in babies
• Purple College of Paediatrics and Child Wellness

References [edit]

1. ^ "Choosing a Pediatrician for Your New Baby (for Parents) - Nemours KidsHealth". kidshealth.org . Retrieved 13 July 2020.
2. ^ "Age limits of pediatrics". Pediatrics. 81 (five): 736. May 1988. doi:10.1542/peds.81.v.736. PMID 3357740. S2CID 245164191. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
3. ^ "Paediatrics" (PDF). nhs.uk . Retrieved two July 2020.
4. ^ Sawyer, Susan M.; McNeil, Robyn; Francis, Kate L.; Matskarofski, Juliet Z.; Patton, George C.; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A.; Esangbedo, Dorothy O.; Klein, Jonathan D. (1 November 2019). "The age of paediatrics". The Lancet Kid & Adolescent Health. 3 (eleven): 822–830. doi:10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30266-four. ISSN 2352-4642. PMID 31542355. S2CID 202732818.
5. ^ ^{a b c d due east} Duffin, Jacalyn (2010). History of Medicine, Second Edition: A Scandalously Short Introduction. Academy of Toronto Press.
6. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Colón, A. R.; Colón, P. A. (January 1999). Nurturing children: a history of pediatrics. Greenwood Press. ISBN9780313310805 . Retrieved twenty October 2012.
7. ^ Celsus, De Medicina, Book 3, Chapter 7, § 1.
8. ^ John G. Raffensperger. Children'due south Surgery: A Worldwide History. McFarland. p. 21.
9. ^ David Levinson; Karen Christensen. Encyclopedia of modern Asia. Vol. 4. Charles Scribner'due south Sons. p. 116.
10. ^ Desai, A.B. Textbook Of Paediatrics. Orient blackswan. p. 1.
11. ^ P.K. Dunn, "Soranus of Ephesus (circa Advertisement 98–138) and perinatal intendance in Roman times", Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 1995 July; 73(ane): F51–F52.[1]
12. ^ Elgood, Cyril (2010). A Medical History of Persia and The Eastern Caliphate (1st ed.). London: Cambridge. pp. 202–203. ISBN978-one-108-01588-2. By writing a monograph on 'Diseases in Children' he may likewise be looked upon as the male parent of paediatrics.
13. ^ U.S. National Library of Medicine, "Islamic Culture and the Medical Arts, Al-Razi, the Clinician" [2]
14. ^ "Achar Southward Textbook Of Pediatrics (3rd Edition)". A. B. Desai (ed.) (1989). p.1. ISBN 81-250-0440-8
15. ^ Stern, Alexandra Minna; Markel, Howard (2002). Formative Years: Children'south Health in the The states, 1880-2000. University of Michigan Press. pp. 23–24. doi:10.3998/mpub.17065. ISBN978-0-472-02503-9.
16. ^ Lock, Stephen; John M. Terminal; George Dunea (2001). The Oxford illustrated companion to medicine . Oxford University Press U.s.. p. 173. ISBN978-0-nineteen-262950-0 . Retrieved 9 July 2010. Rosen von Rosenstein.
17. ^ Roberts, Michael (2003). The Age of Liberty: Sweden 1719–1772. Cambridge University Press. p. 216. ISBN978-0-521-52707-1 . Retrieved 9 July 2010.
18. ^ Dallas, John. "Classics of Child Intendance". Majestic College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 9 July 2010.
19. ^ Duffin, Jacalyn (29 May 2010). History of Medicine, Second Edition: A Scandalously Curt Introduction. University of Toronto Press.
20. ^ Stern, Alexandra Minna; Markel, Howard (2002). Formative Years: Children's Health in the U.s., 1880-2000. University of Michigan Press. pp. 23–24. doi:10.3998/mpub.17065. ISBN978-0-472-02503-9.
21. ^ "Broadribb'south Introductory Pediatric Nursing". Nancy T. Hatfield (2007). p.4. ISBN 0-7817-7706-2
22. ^ "Jacobi Medical Center - General Data". Archived from the original on 18 April 2006. Retrieved 6 April 2006.
23. ^ ^{a b} Ballbriga, Angel (1991). "Ane century of pediatrics in Europe (department: development of pediatric hospitals in Europe)". In Nichols, Burford L.; et al. (eds.). History of Paediatrics 1850–1950. Nestlé Nutrition Workshop Series. Vol. 22. New York: Raven Press. pp. 6–8. ISBN0-88167-695-0.
24. ^ official history site (in French) of nineteenth century paediatric hospitals in Paris
25. ^ Young, D.G. (August 1999). "The Mason Brown Lecture: Scots and paediatric surgery". Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons Edinburgh. 44 (iv): 211–5. PMID 10453141. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014.
26. ^ Pearson, Howard A. (1991). "Pediatrics in the The states". In Nichols, Burford L.; et al. (eds.). History of Paediatrics 1850–1950. Nestlé Nutrition Workshop Series. Vol. 22. New York: Raven Press. pp. 55–63. ISBN0-88167-695-0.
27. ^ "Commentaries: Edwards A Park". Pediatrics. American Academy of Pediatrics. 44 (half-dozen): 897–901. 1969. doi:10.1542/peds.44.half-dozen.897. PMID 4903838. S2CID 43298798.
28. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} O'Hara, Kate (2016). "Paediatric pharmacokinetics and drug doses". Australian Prescriber. 39 (six): 208–210. doi:10.18773/austprescr.2016.071. ISSN 0312-8008. PMC5155058. PMID 27990048.
29. ^ ^{a b c d e f 1000 h i j k fifty m} Wagner, Jonathan; Abdel-Rahman, Susan Yard. (2013). "Pediatric pharmacokinetics". Pediatrics in Review. 34 (half-dozen): 258–269. doi:10.1542/pir.34-vi-258. ISSN 1526-3347. PMID 23729775.
30. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Batchelor, Hannah Katharine; Marriott, John Francis (2015). "Paediatric pharmacokinetics: key considerations". British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 79 (3): 395–404. doi:10.1111/bcp.12267. ISSN 1365-2125. PMC4345950. PMID 25855821.
31. ^ Katz, Aviva L.; Webb, Sally A.; Commission ON BIOETHICS; Macauley, Robert C.; Mercurio, Mark R.; Moon, Margaret R.; Okun, Alexander L.; Opel, Douglas J.; Statter, Mindy B. (1 August 2016). "Informed Consent in Decision-making in Pediatric Practice". Pediatrics. 138 (two): e20161485. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-1485. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 27456510. S2CID 7951515.
32. ^ ^{a b} Mazur, Kate A.; Berg, Stacey L., eds. (2020). Ethical Problems in Pediatric Hematology/Oncology. pp. thirteen–21. doi:ten.1007/978-iii-030-22684-8. ISBN978-3-030-22683-one. S2CID 208302429.
33. ^ ^{a b} Stern, Alexandra Minna; Markel, Howard (2002). Determinative Years: Children's Health in the United States, 1880-2000. University of Michigan Printing. pp. 23–24. doi:ten.3998/mpub.17065. ISBN978-0-472-02503-9.
34. ^ Friedman, Ross, Lainie (2004). Children, families, and wellness intendance determination making. Clarendon Press. ISBN0-19-925154-ane. OCLC 756393117.
35. ^ ^{a b c} Martakis, K.; Schröder-Bäck, P.; Brand, H. (1 June 2018). "Developing child autonomy in pediatric healthcare: towards an ethical model". Archivos Argentinos de Pediatria. 116 (3): e401–e408. doi:10.5546/aap.2018.eng.e401. ISSN 0325-0075. PMID 29756714. S2CID 46889502.
36. ^ Schapiro, Tamar (i July 1999). "What Is a Kid?". Ideals. 109 (four): 715–738. doi:x.1086/233943. ISSN 0014-1704. S2CID 170129444.
37. ^ Dondorp, Westward.; Commodities, I.; Tibben, A.; De Wert, G.; Van Summeren, M. (ane September 2021). "'We Should View Him as an Private': The Part of the Child'south Future Autonomy in Shared Conclusion-Making About Unsolicited Findings in Pediatric Exome Sequencing". Health Intendance Analysis. 29 (3): 249–261. doi:10.1007/s10728-020-00425-vii. ISSN 1573-3394. PMID 33389383. S2CID 230112761.
38. ^ "What Education Is Required to Be a Pediatrician?". Retrieved fourteen June 2017.
39. ^ "CoPS". www.pedsubs.org. Archived from the original on xviii September 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2015.

Further reading [edit]

• BMC Pediatrics - open access
• Clinical Pediatrics
• Developmental Review - partial open up access
• JAMA Pediatrics
• The Journal of Pediatrics - partial open admission

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pediatrics.

• Pediatrics Directory at Curlie
• Pediatric Health Directory at OpenMD

barberprongling1995.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatrics

Share this post